by Masa Nagai, updated 9 August 2025
Background
Getting knowledge of changing situations of the global environment, identifying emerging environmental problems of international concern, setting policies to collectively take actions to address such problems, and cooperating to ensure that necessary actions are taken to resolve the problems – all of these are required in continuum of processes of collective action to address emerging and important global environmental issues. To this end, institutions are essential for sustained action and cooperation.
Since the mid twentieth century, the United Nations, its specialized agencies, international financial institutions and other international organizations and bodies progressively increased their respective roles to promote international cooperation, including in the areas of international development. Against such backdrop, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm, Sweden in June 1972.
The Stockholm Conference put “the environment” on a global agenda, and its outcomes provided the foundation upon which an international institutional architecture on the environment was to be built during the years that followed. As recommended by the Stockholm Conference, the General Assembly established the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in December 1972.
For reference:
The main outcomes of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment included: the Declaration of the Conference, the Action Plan for the Human Environment and the resolution on institutional and financial arrangements. See the report of the Conference (UN doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1) https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/nl7/300/05/pdf/nl730005.pdf
The General Assembly established UNEP by its resolution 2997 (XXVII) of 15 December 1972 entitled “Institutional and financial arrangements for international environmental cooperation”. https://documents.un.org/doc/resolution/gen/nr0/270/27/pdf/nr027027.pdf
International organizations
Because environmental issues are multifaceted, a large number international organizations, both intergovernmental and nongovernmental, are engaged in the field of the environment and play their respective roles.
At the intergovernmental level, in order to deal with emerging global environmental issues, some international organizations and bodies have been established over the past five decades, mostly based upon the foundation of the existing organizations. Many organizations that existed prior to the Stockholm Conference have progressively incorporated into their programs and activities certain environmental aspects as they relate to their respective areas of work.
In addition, nongovernmental organizations have been increasingly active in the field of the environment, both at the national and international levels. They include, but not limited to, environmental public interest groups, groups of scientific and expert institutions, civil society organizations, networks of local authorities and organizations representing the private sector. Nongovernmental organizations have become important actors for shaping and implementing environmental policies.
As the concept of sustainable development has become an important norm to define international policies during the past three decades, environmental consideration has been integrated further into the work of an increased number of international organizations. For example, within the United Nations system alone, more than 40 organizations and entities are active in the field of the environment.
Each organization addresses environmental issues in the way consistent with its own objective, functions and institutional structure. While some international organizations are designed to address a broad range of environmental issues, a majority of organizations deal with certain environmental issues or certain aspects of environment-related activities that are relevant to their respective mandates and responsibilities.
Each organization is governed by its autonomous system of decision-making processes and modalities of work. This means that even within the field of the environment, there are multitude of governance processes running parallel. Where there are areas of common interest between two or more organizations, cooperation and coordination may need to be pursued, and certain mechanisms exist for such purpose.
For reference:
The membership of the Environmental Management Group of the United Nations, a coordination mechanism on the environment, indicates the diversity of organizations within the United Nations system in relation to the environment. See https://unemg.org/about-emg/emg-members
International treaties
Over the past five decades, international treaties in the field of the environment have been progressively developed. International organizations (such as the General Assembly of the United Nations, UNEP and specialized agencies) often provided international platforms for the development of multilateral treaties. Also, a group of countries concerned negotiated and concluded treaties governing their common interests.
Those treaties set internationally agreed rules and standards of conduct for ensuring countries to meet collective objectives concerning specific environmental issues (such as the protection of the ozone layer, climate change, biological diversity or certain hazardous chemicals) or environment-related issues.
Those international treaties are often called “multilateral environmental agreements”. The total number of such treaties, with three or more parties (up to the membership open to all countries of the world), was around 50 in 1970, 100 in 1980, 150 in 1990, and nearly 300 by 2010. During the past decade, some more were added to that number. If the relevant treaty actions for updating the respective treaties (such as amendments or additional annexes) are added, that number will be increased to over 500. Among those international treaties, about 30 are global instruments concerning specific environmental problems.
In principle, each treaty is governed by its parties. This means that there are many autonomous processes governing the operation of international treaties in the field of the environment.
For reference:
Information on multilateral environmental agreements will be found at the following:
InforMEA, managed by UNEP. https://www.informea.org
ECOLEX, managed jointly by IUCN, UNEP and FAO. https://www.ecolex.org
Other international institutional arrangements
In addition, there are many international institutional arrangements that have been established by international organizations or in conjunction with international treaties, in order to carry out certain functions concerning specific global environmental problems. For instance, there are international bodies in such areas as scientific assessments of climate change and biological diversity, international processes on forests and chemicals management, programs to manage regional seas, and international financial mechanisms for global environmental benefits.
Examples of international organizations, international treaties and other international institutional arrangements in the field of the environment, in particular those relating to international policy development and implementation in the selected areas (this is not an exhaustive list)
| Functions / environmental issues | Relevant organizations, treaties, institutional arrangements |
| Global policy development on sustainable development | United Nations: The General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council. Each serves alternately as the High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development. |
| Keeping world environmental situations under review, setting global environmental agenda and promoting international cooperation in the field of the environment | United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It is the principal body of the United Nations in the field of the environment, established by the General Assembly in 1972. Its governing body – United Nations Environment Assembly of UNEP is a subsidiary body of the General Assembly. |
| Science for global environmental policy development | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “The Man and the Biosphere” programme |
| International Science Council, an international nongovernmental organization with global membership that bring together international scientific unions and associations, and national and regional scientific organizations | |
| Protection of the ozone layer | Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985; entry into force 1988); Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987; entry into force 1989) |
| Climate change | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and UNEP in 1988 |
| United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992; entry into force 1994); Kyoto Protocol (1997; entry into force 2005); Paris Agreement (2015; entry into force 2016) | |
| Air pollution | World Health Organization (WHO), with respect to air quality |
| International Maritime Organization (IMO), with respect to emission from ships | |
| International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), with respect to emission from aircraft | |
| Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979; entry into force 1983) and its protocols – regional treaties developed under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (for Europe and North America) | |
| Biological diversity | Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), established in 2012 |
| Convention on Biological Diversity (1992; entry into force 1993); Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000; entry into force 2003); Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of benefits Arising from their Utilization (2010; entry into force 2014) | |
| Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES: 1973; entry into force 1975) | |
| Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979; entry into force 1983) | |
| Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands) (1971; entry into force 1975) | |
| Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972; entry into force 1975) | |
| International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (2001; entry into force 2004) | |
| Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction (2023; Not yet in force as of 9 August 2025) | |
| United Nations Forum on Forests, a functional commission of the Economic and Social Council | |
| Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in relation to projects and programs that help countries use, conserve and restore biodiversity in crop and livestock production, fisheries, aquaculture and forestry | |
| International Union for Conservation of Nature, a global network of government and civil society organizations and experts for conservation | |
| Chemicals and wastes | The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Panel on Chemicals, Waste and Pollution, established in June 2025 |
| The Global Framework on Chemicals, established by the fifth International Conference on Chemicals Management in 2023 | |
| Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989; entry into force 1992) | |
| Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (1998; entry into force 2004) | |
| Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001; entry into force 2004) | |
| Minamata Convention on Mercury (2013; entry into force 2017) | |
| Chemicals Convention, 1990 (No. 170) of the International Labour Organization (ILO) (1990; entry into force 1993) | |
| Desertification and land degradation | United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa (1994; entry into force 1996) |
| Oceans and seas | United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982; entry into force 1994), Part XII on the protection and preservation of the marine environment |
| The Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, an intergovernmental process established under the General Assembly of the United Nations | |
| Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, promoting international cooperation in marine science to improve management of the ocean, coasts and marine resources. | |
| International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL: 1973: did not enter into force), as superseded by the 1978 MARPOL Protocol (entry into force 1983) | |
| Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention) (1972; entry onto force 1975) | |
| Regional seas conventions for the protection of the marine environment: The Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution (Barcelona Convention; 1976; entry into force 1978); the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention: 1982; entry into force 1986); and other conventions for different regions, supported by the regional seas programmes of UNEP | |
| Freshwater | UN-Water, a coordination mechanism for United Nations’ work on water and sanitation, with the membership of over 30 organizations within the United Nations system |
| Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses (1997; entry into force 2014) | |
| Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Water Courses and International Lakes (1992; entry into force 1996), and its Protocol on Water and Health (1999; entry into force 2005) – regional instruments for the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe region | |
| Urban environment | United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), the focal point for urbanization and human settlement matters within the UN system, promotes socially and environmentally sustainable towns and cities. |
| Environmental effect of radioactive substances | United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, established in 1955 in response to widespread concern about the effects of radiation on human health and the environment |
| International Atomic Energy Agency provides a series of safety standards, such as the safety standards on radiation protection of the public and the environment (2018), and regulator control of radioactive discharges to the environment (2018) | |
| Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986; entry into force 1986) | |
| Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management (1997; entry into force 2001) | |
| Financing for global environmental benefits | Global Environment Facility (GEF), established jointly by the World Bank, UNDP and UNEP, for financing the selected areas of global environmental issues, including support for developing countries to implement several multilateral environmental agreements. |
| Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol, established by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer | |
| Green Climate Fund, an operating entity of the financial mechanism of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (in addition to the GEF which is an operating entity of the financial mechanism of the Convention) | |
| Worldwide support for national implementation of environmental policies | United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), supporting countries to integrate the environment into national economies and planning, and help governments to protect and manage a broad range of environmental issues. |
| World Bank, supporting developing countries to better integrate nature, climate and development, including investments in environment, natural resources and the ocean. | |
| International cooperation among enforcement authorities to combat environmental crimes and illicit activities | Green Customs Initiative, a partnership, coordinated by UNEP, among the participating international entities to prevent illegal trade in environmentally-sensitive commodities and substances covered by the relevant multilateral environmental agreements |
| International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), Environment Security Unit, composed of four global enforcement teams (fisheries, forestry, pollution and wildlife), help dismantle the criminal networks behind environmental crime | |
| World Customs Organization (WCO), by its Environment Programme, assist its Members in combating environmental crime | |
| International Consortium on Combatting Wildlife Crime, established in 2010 by the WCO, INTERPOL, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODS) and the CITES secretariat, providing support to national wildlife law enforcement agencies and to regional and sub-regional networks combating illegal trade in wildlife | |
| Under the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, its Parties address, among other things, crimes that affect the environment falling within the scope of the Convention |